Writing
Being a proficient writer is critical in the twenty-first century. Individuals need to use their diverse vocabulary and knowledge to write in a variety of text forms including emails, letters, paragraphs, narratives, stories, persuasive pieces, and comprehensive responses.
The primary and junior grades are foundational years, where students are developing critical writing skills that they will continue to use throughout their lives. Students that struggle with writing are at a considerable disadvantage (both in school and outside of it), but it is never too late to improve writing abilities (Tracey et al, 2009). Research supports that explicitly teaching students critical writing skills such as drafting and editing in earlier grades has an exponential benefit on their writing capabilities in higher grades (secondary and post-secondary) (Tracey et al, 2009). Students with more developed writing skills and abilities are more likely to pursue and be successful in post-secondary studies (Tracey et al, 2009). These post-secondary programs open up doors for students, and result in professional higher paying employment (Tracey et al, 2009).
How much time is spent writing in school?
The Ontario Ministry of Education indicates that 100 minutes everyday should be allotted to literacy (http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/elementary.html).
A balanced literacy program should include various literacy components (see images below).
A balanced literacy program combines essential skills in reading and writing, including the
Big Five : Phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension.
A balanced literacy program includes explicit language instruction with independent learning and language exploration (both reading and writing). Through this program, students can develop proficient lifelong literacy skills.
The images below depict the average literacy program breakdown for different stages of literacy.
These skills are taught throughout the literacy program (not the specific breakdown for each 100 minute literacy block).
The Balanced Literacy Diet website breaks down the components according to the stage of literacy.
In addition to the literacy block, these skills are incorporated across the curricular areas throughout the school day.
Check out the Balanced Literacy Diet website for more information: http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/balancedliteracydiet/Home/index.htm
Within, the Balanced Literacy Diet there are literacy pyramids for both reading and writing.
Similar to reading, writing also requires children to develop print-related skills such as phonemic awareness and knowledge of letter-sound correspondences. Students use this knowledge to encode or spell words. Students also acquire other types of knowledge that support spelling such as the relation between word meanings and their spellings (Balanced Literacy Diet).
Teaching a Report Writing Strategy
On the Self-Regulation page, Self-Regulated Strategy Development was explained and how it can be used to effectively teach writing in conjunction with self-regulatory skills.
Using a report writing strategy is a great example to implement the SRSD approach (Graham et al, 2006).
For effective writing programs, teachers must implement a concrete and explicit genre-specific writing strategy (Tracey et al, 2009). Research supports that using a genre specific writing strategy such as narrative, informative or persuasive, teaches students to competently write in that style and fosters the development of stronger writing skills that are transferable to other uninstructed genres (Tracey et al, 2009).
An effective six-step strategy for report writing was developed by MacArthur, Graham, Molloy and Harris in 1996, and subsequently used in numerous high frequency studies (Graham et al, 2006). This report writing strategy is designed to teach students how to plan and write a report. In these simple steps learning is scaffolded, leading to students writing reports independently (Graham et al, 2006).
Six-step report writing strategy:
1. Choose a topic or idea to write about (Graham et al, 2006).
This can be extremely challenging for many students. One of the biggest problems that children report: is not knowing what to write about and how to get started (Harris et al, 2017). Lucy Calkins recommends providing an optional writing prompt to engage reluctant and indecisive writers (Calkins & Chiarella, 2003). This prompt is a segue into writing and serves as a way to get students started. Teachers must know their students and their interests in order to select an appropriate and engaging prompt. The ideal prompts are flexible and creative, yet directed such as “choose any animal to write about… include important details to describe it to someone who has never heard or seen a picture of this animal before.” A prompt such as this is also accessible and appropriate for all students no matter their backgrounds and prior knowledge. Graham and Harris 2007 strongly suggest that students are more likely to engage and be motivated to write if the topic is for an authentic purpose and target audience (Bogard & McMackin, 2012). When students choose topics (student choice) they are passionate about, their writing becomes more than simply words and conventions (Calkins, 2006). Writers write above all with meaning and purpose (Calkins, 2006).
2. Brainstorm all you know and would like to know about your topic. Activate prior knowledge.
Planning is a pivotal step in the writing process that students least want to do (Graham et al, 2006). According to research, students in junior grades spend between 15 seconds and 387 seconds, with the average being two minutes on planning before they start writing (Bogard & McMackin, 2012). This is a problem. Students need to spend sufficient time planning and activating their prior knowledge before writing (Bogard & McMackin, 2012). This planning time varies depending on each student, their prior knowledge and the writing task. Taking appropriate time to plan, think and discuss their ideas before writing will result in higher quality writing, better word choices, ideas that connect and follows in a logical sequence (Bogard & McMackin, 2012). The quality of student work improved substantially when the planning phase was initially conducted as an oral discussion amongst peers (Bogard & McMackin, 2012). This provided students with the opportunity to bounce ideas off one another and develop a deeper understanding of their topic (Bogard & McMackin, 2012).
3. Organize your ideas by main points and details on a web, where main ideas and subordinate ideas are linked together through the use of lines and arrows.
Graphic organizers are a means to record information in a logical, clear and organized way, so it can be incorporated into a document. To assist students with brainstorming and planning, teachers need to model how to use a graphic organizer to display their thoughts and ideas. Teachers provide students with the same template for their own thoughts and ideas. The graphic organizer for a report is laid out in a web with a main topic, three sub-topics and three supporting points per sub topic (See attached resources). This simple structure is easy for planning, and making connections between topic, subtopics and supporting points (as depicted through linking of lines and arrows). This planning tool is referred back (reference tool) to throughout the writing process to ensure all points are included in the final version of the report (Graham et al, 2006).
4. Read and research to find new information and verify accuracy of already generated material. Make edits: add, delete, change, and modify information as necessary on planning webs.
After the initial brainstorming is recorded in the graphic organizer, additional research is conducted to support the topic and complete the remaining sections of the graphic organizer (Graham et al, 2006). The student retrieves new information and verifies the accuracy of already generated material (add, delete, and modify information on the web as necessary). These plans should enable writers to convert their intended thoughts into well-developed, organized written texts (Bogard & McMackin, 2012). Students use the graphic organizer to guide for their writing, and expand on all of the point form ideas listed (Graham et al, 2006). The teacher is providing on-going, timely and formative feedback during this time.
5. Write your report using information from the web you created, but continue planning as you write.
This step can take a large chunk of the writing time (Graham et al, 2006). Students are taking the information generated in the planning and brainstorming stages, and putting it into full sentences (Bogard & McMackin, 2012). All the while students are organizing their pre-generated ideas into a logical flow and sequence. During this time, the teacher is continuing to provide on-going, timely and formative feedback. This is also an ideal time for the teacher to implement mini-conferences with students to discuss their writing process and next steps as well as implement a Writer's Workshop (see Writer's Workshop below for details and Writer's Workshop blog) (Graham et al, 2006). A Writer's Workshop can target a specific skill that students are working on. Writer's Workshops are an efficient and effective way to assist several students that are working on the same stage (ex. adding details to your writing or working on effective sentence structure) (Calkins, 2006).
6. Check to make sure that you used everything you wanted from the web and include in final report.
The final step in report writing is to refer back to the graphic organizer and ensure that all details have been included in the draft (Bogard & McMackin, 2012). Students will make edits and revisions to their reports. Edits and revisions are modifications such as changing, adding or deleting words or phrases to improve how the document sounds when read altogether. Teachers can develop a self-edit checklist for students to guide them through the process of making changes to their report. Peer editing is extremely beneficial to improve writing quality as peers provide a different perspective and observe things that might go unnoticed (Bogard & McMackin 2012).
Next step: editing and revising of report. Once complete publish final report.
Finally, students can publish their work and be proud of their writing because it means something important to them, and it was purposeful and authentic learning (Calkins, 2006).
Note: These stages may be combined, repeated or reordered depending on writing task.
Benefits of implementing this six-step strategy:
Following these six-stages, students will improve their research reports and strengthen skills such as researching, planning, organizing, generating ideas, providing constructive feedback to peers, and critical thinking (Graham et al, 2006). These skills are universally used across all writing genres, albeit narrative, persuasive or informative. Continuous and repeated writing will assist students in developing confident, independent writing skills.
Writer’s Workshop
A Writer’s Workshop teaches students to become independent writers.
In a Writer's Workshop students take on the role of working authors and spend time engaged in the act of writing.
The purpose of writing workshops is to make writing meaningful, authentic, and applicable to student’s everyday lives (Calkins, 2006). A Writer’s Workshop is a series of steps designed to help students develop their writing fluency, and build confidence as writers through continuous and repeated exposure to the writing process (Calkins, 2006).
The steps in the writing process include:
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generating ideas
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building stories
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choosing a seed idea
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planning
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editing
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revising
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publishing
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celebrating and sharing their writing (Calkins, 2006).
Often teachers will explicitly instruct mini-lessons targeting one of these specific steps. A mini-lesson could be a teacher modelling “how to plan” using a graphic organizer. Through this process, students can see the teacher’s thought processes and how their ideas fit into a graphic organizer (Calkins, 2006).
Gradually students will be independently completing graphic organizers and planning webs (Calkins, 2006).
Who would benefit from a writer's workshop?
ANY GRADE. Often teachers start implementing writer's workshops in the primary grades (1-3) as these skills can continue to be built on throughout school. But it's never too late to start a writer's workshop program!
What does a writer's workshop look like, sound like and feel like in the classroom?
A Writers Workshop looks like:
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A mini lesson about a specific strategy/ expectation
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Anchor charts
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Learning goals
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Clear expectations
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Sharing ideas
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Students working independently
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Student voice and choice in their writing
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Flexible student seating
A Writers Workshop sounds like:
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Student-teacher dialogue
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Student-student dialogue
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Student feedback from both teacher and peers
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Conferencing
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Positive praise and constructive feedback
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Sharing ideas
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Independently working students
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Student choice
A Writers Workshop feels like:
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Quiet independent work space
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Encouraging
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Responsive
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Inclusive
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Supportive with students sharing their ideas and writing
How SRSD enhances a Writer's Workshop?
What thirty years of research says about the benefits of SRSD, genre specific writing and writer's workshops...
(explained by Dr. Karen Harris)
SRSD Process Writing Part 1 SRSD Process Writing Part 2
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ASr0M2bGXms https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KwHqvji6MGk
Check out the Balanced Literacy Diet Virtual Tour of a primary writer's workshop here:
http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/balancedliteracydiet/Recipe/00356/
Check out my homepage blog for more information in Writer's Workshop and books by Lucy Calkins.
Using Mnemonics
to teach writing strategies
Mnemonics are great for literacy and writing! This makes remembering steps for specific writing strategies easier!
Mnemonics is a memory enhancing instructional strategy that involves teaching students to link new information that is taught to information they already know (prior knowledge) through the use of visual or verbal cues.
They are designed to improve an individual's memory of key information. Mnemonic instruction facilitates access to the general education curriculum by giving students the tools they need to better encode information so that it will be much easier to retrieve it from memory at later points.
Research supports that mnemonics can help all students better remember specific information and assist their learning across the curriculum (Graham et al, 2006). Mnemonics are an inclusive strategy especially beneficial for students with learning disabilities because often it can be difficult to retain and encode information (Harris & Graham, 2005). Mnemonics help remember detailed information or steps by making connections with existing knowledge.
These mnemonics such as POW or TREE (listed and explained below) can be implemented within the genre-specific writing strategies instructed (ex. narrative or report writing).
They also make great anchor charts and visual reminders for students. They can refer to these mnemonics throughout the writing process and writing workshops.
Check out LD @ School for more information on Mnemonics and Learning Disabilities... https://www.ldatschool.ca/mnemonics/
What is POW(ER)?
A mnemonic that captures this writing strategy is POWER, which stands for:
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Pick a topic
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Organize and brainstorm ideas
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Write and add more
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Edit
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Revise to make improvements (Graham et al, 2006).
This writing strategy is frequently used across writing genres.
This seventh grade class knows POW and TIDE for their writing...
What is TREE?
The Writing Process
There are several critical skills to develop in order to be an effective writer.
Some of these skills include: prewriting, planning, brainstorming, drafting,
revising, editing, evaluating, and publishing.
Any of these skills can be used as a mini
lesson topic for a writers workshop or
interwoven into
a genre specific writing strategy
taught in conjunction with SRSD.
Tip from Lucy Calkins
"Remember to teach the writer,
not the writing."
Check out Reading Rockets for information on writing processes (and reading)!
Go to... http://www.readingrockets.org/article/how-writing-develops
Another great resource for information on writing processes and strategies- Check out the Balanced Literacy Diet
Go to... http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/balancedliteracydiet/Writing_Processes_Strategies.html
Do the D.E.W
This is a new phenomenon popping up in classrooms. It's called D.E.W which stands for...
Drop Everything and Write
This is exactly what you would think. It's a spontaneous writing period. Students drop what they are doing and write.
Students can write about a topic of their choice, or choose the authentic and relatable free writing prompt provided by their teacher. This allows for students to be creative and really delve into their writing.
Such prompts include:
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The Rocket-ship: Write about a rocket-ship on it’s way to the moon or a distant galaxy far, far, away.
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Food: What’s for breakfast? Dinner? Lunch?
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Dragon: Envision a dragon. Do you battle him? Or is the dragon friendly? Use descriptive language.
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If I were a turtle living in a pond, I would...
Check out this website for 365 writing prompts to use with elementary students:
http://thinkwritten.com/365-creative-writing-prompts/
Check out these writing prompts for secondary students and young adults:
https://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/11/13/500-prompts-for-narrative-and-personal-writing/
Graphic Organizers
A critical part of the writing process is brainstorming and organizing your thoughts before you start writing. Research supports how little time students spend on this stage (junior grade students average 2 minutes), and often students do not know how to properly or effectively use a graphic organizer (Bogard & McMackin, 2012). Students are simply writing full sentences in their graphic organizers and then copying these sentences directly into their writing. That is not correct and a waste of the students time- which could perhaps be another reason planning is rushed over by students and appears ineffective. Teachers need to model how to properly and effectively use graphic organizers (example anchor charts can be left on the wall for student reference).
Graphic organizers are a great tool to record point form information and ideas that can be put into full sentences in your writing draft.
Graphic organizers benefit all learners and especially struggling or reluctant learners as it provide a platform to organize thoughts and ideas in a visual way.
They also break information down into smaller steps, which is easier for students to understand and less overwhelming.
There are lots of different graphic organizer templates.
Make sure to choose the appropriate one for your students and writing task.
Sample: Graphic Organizers for Writing Planning Web
A simple graphic organizer is the "Hamburger Paragraph"
that can be used...
Topic sentence (top bun)
Supporting details (ketchup, pickles, and mustard etc.)
Concluding sentence (bottom bun).
Link to downloadable sample and template.
Additional writing templates available at http://www.dailyteachingtools.com/free-graphic-organizers-w.html
Editing and Revising is another important step in the writing process (encourages metacognition and reflection).
Sample: Editing Checklist for Self and Peer Editing
Additional print out resources available at http://www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/printouts/
References
Bogard, J., & McMackin, M. (2012). Combining traditional and new literacies in a 21st writing workshop. The Reading Teacher, 65(5), 313-323.
Calkins, L. (2003). The nuts and bolts of teaching writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann
Calkins, L. (2006). A guide to the writing workshop. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann
Calkins, L. M. & Chiarella, M. (2003). Memoir: The art of writing well. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann
Calkins, L. & Louis, N. (2003). Writing for readers: teaching skills and strategies. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann
Calkins, L. & Martinelli, M. (2006). Launching the writing workshop. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann
Graham, S., Harris, K., & Macarthur, C. (2006). Explicitly teaching struggling writers: strategies for mastering the writing process. Intervention in School and Clinic, 41(5), 290-294
Graham, S., Bollinger, A., Olsen, C.B., D'Aoust, C., MacArthur, C., McCutchen, D., & Olinghouse, N. (2012). Teaching elementary school students to be effective writers. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education
Graham, S., & Hebert, M.A. (2010). Writing to read: Evidence for how writing can improve reading. A Carnegie Corporation Time to Act Report. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education
Graham, S. & Hebert, M. (2011). Writing to read: A meta-analysis of the impact of writing and writing instruction on reading. Harvard Educational Review, 81(4)
Harris, K. & Graham, S. (1992). Helping young writers master the craft: strategy instruction and self-regulation in the writing process. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books
Harris, K., & Graham, S. (1996). Making the writing process work: Strategies for composition and self-regulation (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books. Google Scholar
Harris, K. & Graham, S. (2005). Writing better: effective strategies for teaching students with learning disabilities. Baltimore, MA: Brookes
Gillespie, A. & Graham, S. (2014) A meta-analysis of writing interventions for students with learning disabilities. Journal of Exceptional Students. 80(4)
Gillespie, A., Olinghouse, N. G., & Graham, S. (2013). Fifth-grade students' knowledge about writing process and writing genres. The Elementary School Journal. 113 (4), 565-588
Glaser, C. & Brunstein, J. C. (2007). Improving fourth-grade students’ composition skills: effects of strategy instruction and self-regulation procedures. Journey of Educational Psychology. 99(2), 297-310
Harris, K.R., Graham, S., Aitken, A.A., Barkel, A., and Housten, J. (2017). Teaching spelling, writing, and reading for writing: Powerful evidence-based practices. Writing Instruction. 49(4)
Limpo, T., Alves, R. A., & Fidalgo, R. (2014). Children's high‐level writing skills: Development of planning and revising and their contribution to writing quality. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(2), 177-193.
Tracy, B., Graham, S., & Reid, R. (2009). Teaching young students strategies for planning and drafting stories: The impact of self-regulated strategy development. The Journal of Educational Research, 102(5)
Willows, D. M. (2008). Reducing literacy failure through teacher development: Implementing a balanced and flexible literacy diet. Education Canada, 20-24 Retrieved from http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/balancedliteracydiet/UserFiles/File/Education_Canada_Article_November_2008.pdf
Another mnemonic for writing is TREE:
Which stands for...
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Topic sentence
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Reasons 3 or more
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Ending
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Examine
This mnemonic can be used for
persuasive or opinion writing.
See example of anchor chart and student writing (Graham et al, 2006).
The Writing Pyramid
includes:
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letters, sounds and phonics
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spelling and word study
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concepts of print
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text structures and genres
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writing conventions
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writing processes and strategies
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vocabulary
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phonemic awareness
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oral langauge
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knowledge building
= Written Expression
Check out this video about Writer's Workshops in action
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zPRM2ZXyrS0&list=PLb5RXypPqP5sNAYNUDEfwaq2QYPauhCcc
A Day in The Life of a Writer's Workshop shows a teacher going through the steps in a writer's workshop and primary students hard at work on their writing.
